From TASH Connections Volume 32, Issue 5/6 - May/June, 2006

Parent Practices in Facilitating Self-Determination Skills: The Influences of Culture, Socioeconomic Status, and Children's Special Education Status BY LEENA JO LANDMARK and DALUN ZHANG

Over the past 15 years, there has been a growing recognition that enhanced self-determination improves transition outcomes of students with disabilities (Algozzine, Browder, Karvonen, Test, & Wood, 2001; Zhang, Wehmeyer, & Chen, 2005). Researchers have suggested a strong link between enhanced self-determination skills and better in-school and post-school outcomes for students with and without disabilities. For example, Field and Hoffman (2002) pointed out that students with disabilities who were involved in planning, decision making, and implementation of their educational programs achieved better academic success than their peers who did not. Hardre and Reeve (2003) analyzed questionnaire data from rural high school students with and without disabilities and found that the provision of autonomy support within classrooms predicted students' self-determined motivation and perceived competence. These motivational resources, in turn, predicted students' intentions to persist versus drop out.

McMillian and Reed (1994) found that some students without disabilities could be classified as at-risk, but developed "resilient" (self-determination) characteristics and coping skills that enabled them to succeed in school rather than dropping out of school. Follow-up studies conducted by Wehmeyer and his colleagues demonstrated that individuals with disabilities who developed better self-determination skills during school achieved better post-school outcomes in various areas of adult life (Wehmeyer & Palmer, 2003; Wehmeyer & Schwartz, 1997).

Research on self-determination suggests that parenting styles impact children's acquisition and development of self-determination skills (Zhang, Katsiyannis, & Zhang, 2002; Zhang et al., 2005). However, self-determination related parenting practices are values associated with Anglo-European cultures (Frankland, Turnbull, Wehmeyer, & Blackmountain, 2004); in some other cultures, the same practices may be discouraged (Zhang et al., 2005).

As the United States is growing increasingly diverse, there is a critical need to study cultural impacts on parenting styles as they are related to facilitating self-determination skills. Findings of such studies are essential for the development of effective intervention strategies to enhance the self-determination skills of students with disabilities. By presenting the findings from a survey of parents of children with and without disabilities, this article will address the following questions:

1. Do non-Anglo-European cultures value self-determination?

2. Do culturally diverse parents engage in self-determination practices at the same level as parents of the mainstream culture?

3. Do parents with lower socioeconomic status engage in self-determination practices at the same level as those with higher socioeconomic status?

4. Do parents of students with disabilities engage in self-determination practices at the same level as parents of students without disabilities?

The participants of the study were a sample of convenience that included parents of children with and without disabilities at various grade levels. The study utilized a survey instrument that collected demographic data and data regarding parental beliefs and practices on fostering children's self-determination skills, including information on how parents deal with undesirable child behaviors. These undesired child behaviors were included because parenting styles related to these behaviors tend to reflect differences between Eastern and Western cultures.

Do Non-Anglo-European Cultures Value Self-Determination?

Self-determination has its root in the normalization movement originated in Europe. Therefore, the values inherent in most efforts to promote self-determination are those values associated with Anglo-European cultures and societies (Frankland et al., 2004). Values that are generally associated with self-determination behaviors include personal control over the environment, individualism, self-help, competition, future orientation, and goal orientation. Individualism, self-design, and self-realization are important aspects of self-determination in goal-oriented endeavors.

However, as pointed out by researchers in the field of psychology, there are significant differences between Western and non-Western thinking about what the cultural norm is (Dawson & McInerney, 1998). Non-Western cultures may encourage values that are different from the essential values associated with self-determination (Zhang, et al., 2005).

For example, the Chinese culture emphasizes collectivism. Chinese parents are often characterized as authoritarian and controlling in parenting (Chen, Wang, Chen, & Liu, 2002; Chao, 1994). Researchers have suggested that compared to their North American counterparts, Chinese parents tend to emphasize children's respect for and listening to parents and other elderly relatives (Chen et al., 2002). Due to the high level of competition in Chinese postsecondary education and employment, children are expected to spend more than 10 hours per day engaging in their schoolwork and homework; this is thought to increase postsecondary education opportunities (a route that is commonly referred to as "the single wood-bridge").

Yet, because parents provide little explanation and emotional support in childrearing, many Chinese children may be less likely to develop an autonomous understanding of social rules (Chen et al., 2002). Fewer children have opportunities to develop and pursue their own interests and desires. Further, Chinese society openly discourages individualism and emphasizes that the interests of the individual must be subordinated to those of the collective (Chen et al., 2002). Individuals have fewer choices in education, employment, and living conditions because these are generally arranged or assigned by the government. The tension between the cultural expectations of a society and the goal of self-determination, at least as described in Anglo-European cultures, is a critical issue.

Some preliminary research has found that self-determination is valuable in other cultures. For example, Frankland, et al. (2004) found that self-determination has considerable utility and heuristic value in the Dine (Navajo) culture, yet how members of this culture implement individual components varied from Anglo-European cultures and societies. Ohtake and Wehmeyer (2004) and Lee and Wehmeyer (2003) have found that the self-determination construct is applicable to and valued by Japanese and Korean cultures, but that how the construct was operationalized varied considerably from how it has been described in the Western literature.

Do Culturally Diverse Parents Engage in Self-Determination Practices at the Same Level as Parents of the Mainstream Culture?

According to Chao (1996), cultural differences in parenting styles and parent-child relations have great impact on child cognitive development. Race and immigration status were used to examine cultural influences on parents' engagement in fostering their children's self-determination. Findings from the survey study indicate that children in Caucasian families do more household chores and interact with salespeople more often than children from African American and Asian families. This finding supports the assumption that Anglo-cultures encourage independence and that children from these cultures are provided with more opportunities to practice these skills. Children of first-generation immigrants did less household chores and interacted with salespeople less often than their counterparts in non-immigrant families.

In the category of parent authority and family priority, the study found that Asian parents tended to think everybody was an equal member in the family and they wanted their children to have a career that was best for the children; Asian and immigrant parents did not emphasize parent authority and family priority as much as Caucasian and non-immigrant parents. These findings are contradictory to what is reported in the literature (e.g., Chao, 1994; Chen et al., 2002). A possible reason for these findings may be related to a limitation of the study: The Asian immigrant parents held at least a college degree and were working or pursuing a graduate-level degree at a major American university. This fact greatly limited their representation of the larger immigrant community from Asia. On the other hand, the findings suggest that self-determination related parenting practices can be accepted and valued by non-Weston cultures and may be related to education and exposure to the Western culture. Immigrants with such exposure to the Western culture seem to increase their self-determination awareness and practices. Further studies that compare highly educated immigrants with their counterparts in their original countries may be necessary to understand the impact of education and cultural exposures on self-determination practices.

In parenting style, Caucasian parents promoted self-determination skills more than African American parents who tended to press their children for certain daily routine behaviors (e.g., making the child eat enough food). Additionally, African American parents did not involve their children in decision making as much as Caucasian parents. However, there were not significant differences between Asian parents and Caucasian parents.

First-generation immigrants expressed less desire to control their child's future career and living arrangement. They also tended to want their children to have a career of their own choice and live independently as early as possible. These findings were unexpected and not supported by previous literature, and again may be related to the sampling limitations. In dealing with undesired or unexpected child behaviors, immigrant parents seemed more willing to provide encouragements for children to correct their misbehaviors and less likely to force their children into following parents' orders.

Do Parents with Lower Socioeconomic Status Engage in Self-Determination Practices at the Same Level as Those with Higher Socioeconomic Status?

Parent educational level and household income were used to examine the influences of socioeconomic status. Parents with college degrees involved their children more than parents with high school education and/or parents with some college work in household chores, interacting with salespeople, discussing children's future interests, making daily decisions that have important life impacts, goal setting and recognition of weaknesses, and dealing with undesired behaviors. These findings are in line with the current literature, which indicates that more educated parents provide their children with more opportunities for choice- and decision-making and involve their children in various aspects of life (e.g., recognizing weaknesses, planning their future career, and living arrangements). As expected, parents with more education did not emphasize parent authority and family priorities as much as parents with some college work or parents with high school education. Parents of higher income families were more likely to teach their children goal setting and recognition of their weaknesses, and engage their children in making daily decisions. Both findings confirm the relationship between socioeconomic status and self-determination related parenting practices.

Do Parents of Students with Disabilities Engage in Self-Determination Practices at the Same Level as Parents of Students without Disabilities?

Parents of non-special education students tended to engage in more self-determination practices than parents of special education students. Parents of children with disabilities were less likely to involve them in household chores and interacting with salespeople, to allow them to make their own decisions, to teach goal setting and recognition of their weaknesses, and to involve them in making choices and decisions when dealing with unexpected and undesired behaviors. These parents also tended to exert more control in their children's post-school career and living arrangements.

These findings support previous literature suggesting that parents of individuals with disabilities provide fewer opportunities to their children to make choices and decisions, to engage in trial and error activities, and to set and work on personal goals (e.g., Bannerman, Sheldon, Sherman, & Harchik, 1990). As noted by Cook, Brotherson, Weigel-Garrey and Mize (1996), the home offers children their earliest opportunities to make choices, experience control, and exhibit competence. If the family's goal is to support self-determination and independence, it would be essential that parents reinforce and implement self-determination skills within the context of home related activities are crucial in reaching independence. Systematic training and information dissemination to families of younger children may be needed to support parents to promote self-determination at home (Zhang et al., 2005).

Conclusion

Future research is needed to investigate a larger sample that better represents the United States population, particularly first-generation immigrants. Due to the rapid increase of Hispanic populations in the United States, future research should include adequate representation from this group. More studies should be designed to conduct in-depth interviews with parents regarding their daily practices in relation to fostering self-determination skills. More importantly, intervention projects are needed to provide direct counseling services to parents, especially parents with disabilities and parents from low income families, to engage in self-determination fostering behaviors.

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Authors' Note
This article was originally published as Zhang, D. (2005). Parent practices in facilitating self-determination skills: The influences of culture, socioeconomic status, and children's special education status. Research and Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities, 30(3), 154-62.